| Fire Protection Planning Reports - A Series
Codes & Standards
Home > Fire
Safety > Fire Protection Planning Reports
From 1975 to 1995 the Fire Safety Committee of the Concrete and
Masonry Industry published a series of reports on fire safety and
protection. The series addressed codes and standards and specific
types of construction with an emphasis on residential construction
where most fire deaths occur. While some of the information is dated,
most of the information and recommendations remain appropriate today.
These publications are provided in a pdf format for your review.
Three of the reports remain available for purchase from the PCA
bookstore.
Click on title for a PDF of the report.
FIRE
SAFETY IN RESIDENTAL BUILDINGS
FPPR No. 1 of A Series SR 172.01H
The need for fire-safe construction in single-family homes, townhouses,
and garden apartments is often ignored. The steady growth of multifamily,
low-rise buildings (townhouses with common walls and apartment buildings
of three or four floors), which are constructed essentially the
same as single-family residences but with many families living under
one roof, multiples the fire danger. Protection options that improve
life safety and property protection for residential buildings are
discussed.
SIX
FUNDAMENTALS OF FIRE SAFETY IN BUILDINGS
FPPR No. 2 of A Series SR 176.01H
Six fundamentals of fire safety in high-rise buildings, as stated
by the Fire Safety Committee of the Concrete and Masonry Industry,
are described:
- Buildings must remain intact throughout the fire and offer
refuge for the occupants until they can be evacuated. There must
be no structural failure should there be a burn-out in any portion
of the building.
- New building code regulations should be directed towards reducing
fire hazards that are not now adequately regulated.
- Compartmentation, smoke control, and early detection constitute
a viable basis fire safety.
- Use of combustible structural elements, insulation, and finishes
should be carefully restricted and controlled.
- Automatic fire-suppressing systems (sprinklers) should be required.
- Automatic fire-suppressing systems (sprinklers) should be in
addition to compartmentation within a story.
SIGNIFICANCE
OF FIRE RATINGS FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
FPPR No. 3 of A Series SR 179.01H
Destruction resulting from uncontrolled fires was the primary reason
for adopting the first building codes. Because building fires are
a major hazard to life and property, building codes require that
resistance to fire be considered in building design. Codes provide
the means by which structural fire resistance is integrated into
the design and construction of the buildings.
It is generally presumed that building components will perform satisfactorily
for as long as their designated fire ratings indicate under actual
fire conditions. However, this is not necessarily true.
How are fire ratings determined? Standard laboratory tests have
been developed to provide a means for evaluating the performance
of building materials and structural assemblies under fire exposure.
Based on the findings from these tests, the fire endurance of the
various structural components that make up a building are determined.
BUILDING
FIRE PROTECTION INTO LOW-RISE MULTIFAMILY HOMES
FPPR No. 4 of A Series SR 191.01H
The loss of life and property from fire in garden apartments, townhouses,
and other low-rise multifamily residences (buildings with up to
three floors can be reduced by upgrading codes and standards governing
construction materials and methods.
Townhouses and low-rise multifamily residential buildings contribute
heavily to current fire-loss statistics. A very high percentage
of these fire losses can be attributed to housing facilities constructed
under liberal building codes.
One way to promote greater fire safety to life and property is to
require better fire-resistant construction through the upgrading
of building regulations. By strengthening code provisions, fire
protection of low-rise buildings can be improved.
AN
INTRODUCTION TO RATIONAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY FOR FIRE
SAFETY
FPPR No. 5 of A Series SR 206.01B
Valuable information about the fire resistance of concrete and
masonry assemblies has been developed and gathered from the results
of fire tests. This information has been used to develop and update
building code requirements for fire resistance and safety.
Rational design employs this technology to design concrete and masonry
structures to withstand the effects of fire. Rational design, or
the analytical procedures for determining fire resistance, refers
to an engineering method of calculating the duration that a structural
element can be subjected to a standard fire test exposure while
performing its function, both structurally and as a barrier to heat.
NEW
STUDY EMPHASIZES NEED FOR FIRE-RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION IN LOW-RISE
MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS
FPPR No. 6 of A Series SR 209.01B
A revealing report examining fire losses in multifamily residences
by construction type has been prepared by the University of Maryland’s
Department of Civil Engineering. The 1979 report is based on a study
made to determine whether there is a relationship between construction
type and fire losses. Most of the data apply to low-rise construction
but some of the data gathered are for fires in mid- and high-rise
multifamily buildings. All of the information is valuable in studying
low-rise fire protection.
Evidence obtained during the one-year study confirms that concrete
and masonry construction in apartment buildings offers the most
resistance to fire spread and damage, while unprotected wood-frame
construction offers the least resistance to fire spread and damage.
EFFECTS
OF THERMAL INSULATION ON FIRE-RESISTIVE ASSEMBLIES
FPPR No. 7 of A Series SR 217.01B
If the flame spread and combustibility characteristics of thermal
insulation do not significantly contribute to the severity of the
fire environment, adding insulation to an assembly will generally
reduce the overall heat transmission through the assembly under
fire-exposure conditions. This results in lower unexposed surface
temperatures. However, this reduction in heat transmission can cause
other regions within certain assemblies to develop higher temperatures
in comparison with similar assemblies without the added insulation.
This may lead to premature structural failure of the assemblies
and a subsequent reduction in fire resistance.
FIGHTING
ARSON WITH FIRE-RESISTIVE CONSTRUCTION
FPPR No. 8 of A Series SR 231.01B
People commit arson for various reasons. There are five main groupings
for the motives of arsonists: profit, concealment of other crimes,
vandalism and malicious mischief, revenge or spite, and pyromania
or other mental illness.
As with accidental fires, preventing arson fires is the first line
of defense. Major efforts have been undertaken by local governments,
federal agencies, and the insurance industry in setting up arson
prevention programs. These programs are mostly directed toward preventing
arson-for-profit fires. By far, the greatest potential for reducing
arson exists for arson motivated by financial gain. It is the easiest
motive to predict and therefore prevent.
FIGHTING
ARSON WITH FIRE-RESISTIVE CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING CODES
FPPR March 1993, SR 231.02B
Arson prevention and protection alternatives based on the type
of arson scenario and building occupancy are described. The role
of noncombustible fire-resistive construction in the overall protection
scheme is presented, along with the recommended action for code-writing
bodies to reduce losses due to I/S fires. The term arson is used
synonymously with fires of incendiary or suspicious nature unless
otherwise specified.
FIRE
PROTECTION AND COMMUNITY PLANNING
FPPR No. 9 of A Series SR 236.01B
Fire, in its uncontrolled state, is one of the great killers of
people and the destroyer of economic wealth. Nearly 7,000 people
lose their lives in fires each year; thousands more are injured
and tens of thousands lose their homes and possessions to its ravages.
In an effort to protect the public from the devastating effects
of fire, modern-day building codes have established minimum standards
for the protection of life and property. During the last 10 to 15
years, life safety has surfaced as the motivating force behind building
code changes. This is justified since life is so very precious and
can never be replaced. The fire protection community has alerted
the public exceedingly well to the need for greater life safety
measures. Now, however, there is also a need for emphasis on property
protection.
CONFIRMED:
FIRE LOSS IN MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS DEPEND ON TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION
FPPR No. 10 of A Series SR 243.01B
As the fire resistivity of multifamily residences increases, fire
losses – measured by extent of flame spread, average dollar
loss per fire, and number of injuries per fire – all decrease.
As the number of living units in multifamily residences increases,
fire losses increase. In residences with over 20 living units and
built of wood-frame construction, injury losses and property losses
are significantly greater than in any other combination of construction
type and building size.
FIRE
PROTECTION FOR INDUSTRIAL AND WAREHOUSE BUILDINGS
FPPR No. 11 of A Series SR 244.01B
In one of the most costly structure fires ever, one of the world’s
largest and most modern retail distribution centers burned to the
ground along with all of its contents. Losses to K-Mart’s
1.1 million-sq ft warehouse located near Philadelphia are expected
to exceed $110 million. In a little over one hour the huge warehouse
and its contents were totally destroyed in spite of the presence
of an operating, full-coverage, automatic sprinkler system and quick
response by dozens of fire trucks. Only the general offices and
computer center survived, separated from the rest of the structure
my masonry walls.
CONSTRUCTING
FIRE SAFE SINGLE-FAMILY HOMES
FPPR No. 12 of A Series SR 252.01B
Single-family dwellings rank first in the incidence of United States
fire losses. In 1981, the U.S. Fire Administration reported that
of all structure fires, those in dwellings accounted for 27% of
all property loss, 50% of all injuries, 52% of all fires, and 64%
of all deaths. Indications are that energy conservation efforts
may be contributing to the fire problem in single-family homes.
Introduction of cellulosic and plastic insulations and greater use
of solid fuel and portable heating equipment have increased fire
hazards. Contents of single-family dwellings are also changing.
There are more electrical appliances and, consequently, more ignition
sources. The expanded use of plastics in furnishings not only has
added to the fuel load, but has also increased toxicity level of
products of combustion.
Innovation and new technologies are emerging in construction methods.
The use of noncombustible materials in traditionally all-wood houses
is gaining acceptance as new building systems bring down costs.
Using noncombustible building materials in a single-family dwelling
offers several advantages. One is energy conservation. Concrete
and masonry add thermal mass that helps lower fuel bills and reduce
required levels of insulation. Passive solar designs that take advantage
of this mass effect, as well as earth sheltered housing, are now
quite popular. Another advantage is fire safety. Noncombustible
materials will not add fuel to a fire nor support combustion in
concealed spaces. They do not generate toxic gasses or smoke and
will act to confine and limit fire to the area of origin.
CONSTRUCTING
FIRE SAFE SINGLE-FAMILY HOMES
FPPR December 1992, SR 252.02B
As in several years past, fire losses in one-and two-family dwellings
again accounted for the highest percentage of fire incidents in
the United States. Although the numbers are of substantial magnitude,
consider the property damage totals of single-family dwellings compared
to the staggering 41.5 billion in estimated damages from the Oakland
Hills Fire that occurred in October 1991. Almost 2,450 single-family
dwellings along with 437 apartments, condos, and other structures
were destroyed in that single incident. This one event has brought
renewed emphasis on the issue of firesafe single-family construction
and may have historical significance in the way single-family residences
are designed in the future.
ANALYTICAL
METHODS OF DETERMINING FIRE ENDURANCE OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY MEMBERS
– MODEL CODE APPROVED PROCEDURES
FPPR No. 13 of A Series SR 267.01B
Fire-endurance periods for building components are normally determined
by physical tests conducted according to ASTM E119, “Standard
Methods of Fire Tests of building Construction and Materials.”
Provisions of the ASTM E119 test require that specimens be subjected
to a fire which follows the standard time-temperature curve.
Under the E119 standard, the fire endurance of a member or assembly
is determined by the time required to reach the first of any specified
endpoints. The requirements of the standard are provided and discussed.
SEPARATING
THE STRUCTURAL FIRE RESISTANCE AND BARRIER FIRE RESISTANCE END POINTS
FPPR No. 14 of A Series SR 273.01B
ASTM E119 “Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Building Construction
and Materials” is the recognized standard in the United States
for determining fire-resistance ratings of building members and
assemblies. Compliance with fire-resistance ratings specified in
each of the model codes is based on testing in accordance with the
procedures of ASTM E119.
ASTM E119 contains procedures for determining both structural and
barrier fire-endurance end points. In the case of building elements,
such as beams and columns, the standard requires the determination
of a structural fire endurance only since these members are not
intended to perform as fire barriers. For bearing walls, floors,
and roofs which are required to serve as structural assemblies and
may be required to perform as fire barriers. The fire endurance
of these assemblies is based only on the first end point reached.
Thus a bearing wall, floor, or roof assembly reaching the barrier
end point first may still have the capacity to perform structurally
for a longer period of time.
There are many situations in buildings where assemblies need perform
only one of these two functions. However, an assembly selected by
an engineer or architect to meet a structural fire-endurance requirement
may have achieved its rating based on fire-barrier performance and
may actually possess significantly more structural capacity that
is required. This results in the inefficient use of building materials,
wasted construction time, and unnecessary construction and manpower
costs.
A
COMPARISON OF INSURANCE AND CONSTRUCTION COSTS FOR LOW-RISE MULTIFAMILY
DWELLINGS
FPPR No. 15 of A Series SR 277.01B
Prospective building owners, building officials, developers, landlords,
and tenants should be aware of the advantages of concrete and masonry
low-rise multifamily dwellings. There are economic benefits of constructing
with concrete and masonry building materials and, through a life-cycle
cost analysis, will show that it is actually less expensive to own
a concrete and masonry building than one constructed of wood frame.
Although energy and maintenance savings are also realized in constructing
with concrete and masonry, only construction, sprinkler, mortgage,
and insurance cost considerations are addressed in this text.
GUIDE
TO BOCA/NBC REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE AND MASONRY FIRE WALLS
FPPR No. 16B of A Series SR 291.01B
Information on the code requirements germane to concrete and masonry
fire walls is provided.
- The code’s definition of a fire wall and characteristics
common thereto
- Fire-rating requirements for fire walls and their components
(parapets, opening protectives, and so forth)
- Conceptual drawings of wall-roof connections and restraining
conditions necessary for fire walls to meet the code’s stability
criterion during a fire.
GUIDE
TO THE BOCA NATIONAL BUILDING CODE/1993 REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE
AND MASONRY FIRE WALLS
FPPR April 1994, SR 291.02B
Information on the code requirements germane to concrete and masonry
walls is provided.
- Explains the functional requirements of fire walls and describes
characteristics common thereto.
- Indicates sections of the code that apply to fire walls and
their components (parapets, opening protectives, penetration protection
and so forth),
- Conceptually examines wall-roof interactions and restraining
conditions that are necessary in order for fire walls to meet
the code’s stability criterion during a fire.
GUIDE
TO SBC REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE AND MASONRY FIRE WALLS
FPPR No. 16S of A Series SR 292.01B
Information on the code requirements germane to concrete and masonry
fire walls is provided.
- The code’s definition of a fire wall and characteristics
common thereto
- Fire-rating requirements for fire walls and their components
(parapets, opening protectives, and so forth)
- Conceptual drawings of wall-roof connections and restraining
conditions necessary for fire walls to meet the code’s stability
criteria during a fire.
GUIDE
TO 1994 STANDARD BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE AND MASONRY
FIRE WALLS
FPPR January 1995, SR 282.02B
Information about code requirements for concrete and masonry fire
walls is provided.
- The code’s definition of a firewall and characteristics
common thereto,
- Fire-rating requirements for fire walls and their components
(parapets, opening protectives, penetration protection, etc.).
- Conceptual drawings of wall-roof connections and restraining
conditions necessary for fire walls to meet the code’s stability
criteria during a fire.
GUIDE
TO UBC REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE AND MASONRY AREA SEPARATION WALLS
FPPR No. 16U of A Series SR 293.01B
Information on the code requirements germane to concrete and masonry
area separation walls is provided.
- Characteristics common to all area separation walls
- Fire-rating requirements for area separation walls and their
components (parapets, opening protectives, and so forth)
- Orientation of wall configurations that qualify as area separation
walls.
IS
ONE-HOUR FIRE-RATED COMPARTMENTATION OF DWELLING UNITS ADEQUATE
IN LOW-RISE MULTIFAMILY HOUSING?
FPPR No. 17 of A Series SR 294.01B
Are one-hour fire-rated separations of dwelling units in multifamily
housing represent an adequate level of property protection. Model
building code requirements for fire resistance of dwelling-unit
separations are also examined, along with the methodology used in
establishing these requirements. Finally, a balanced design approach
to fire safety is proposed for multifamily housing, identifying
concrete and masonry construction as the primary component in a
system comprised of compartmentation and automatic suppression and
detection elements.
A
BALANCED DESIGN APPROACH TO FIRESAFETY FOR LOW-RISE MULTIFAMILY
CONSTRUCTION
FPPR No. 18 of A Series SR 296.01B
Balanced approach to design for fire safety is described:
- the concept of a balanced design approach to fire safety
- explain why it is needed
- emphasize the urgency of its implementation; and
- illustrate the cost benefits of concrete and masonry construction
used in a balanced design approach to fire safety of low-rise
multifamily housing.
ASSESSING
THE CONDITION AND REPAIR ALTERNATIVES OF FIRE-EXPOSED CONCRETE AND
MASONRY MEMBERS
FPPR August 1994, SR 322.01B
An approach for assessing the condition of fire-exposed concrete
and masonry building construction is described. Various testing
and analytical methodologies are described and some general information
is provided about restoration procedures. Detailed repair techniques
are beyond the scope of this report.
THE
DECLINE OF FIRE LIMITS AND THE NEED FOR IMPROVED CONFLAGRATION PROTECTION
IN THE MODEL BUILDING CODES
FPPR August 1991, SR 319.01B
Fire limits, also referred to as fire districts or fire zones,
were established years ago to protect against large destructive
fires (conflagrations) in built-up areas. As the use of fire limits
diminished or disappeared altogether, the gap in fire protection
was to be filled through the implementation of appropriate building
code provisions. An examination of today’s model building
codes shows that these replacement provisions have not adequately
satisfied this objective. The deficiency lies in the failure of
codes to properly address the exterior ignition of buildings due
to radiant heat energy or direct flame contact. Recommendations
correlating requirements of set-back distances and opening protection
for buildings having either combustible exterior walls, or exterior
walls with combustible veneers are proposed in this report as corrective
action.
FUNDAMENTALS
OF FIRE SAFETY IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
FPPR November 1991, SR 320.01B
Fundamentals of fire safety design for high-rise buildings are
discussed.
- The building must retain its structural integrity throughout
the duration of a fire, and offer safe areas of refuge for the
occupants until they can be evacuated. There must be no structural
failure in the event of a burn-out in any portion of the building.
- Horizontal and vertical compartmentation should be utilized
to limit the spread of fire beyond the area of origin.
- The use of combustible materials and finish systems (cladding)
on exterior walls should be prohibited.
- Active types of fire protection such as automatic detection
and alarm systems, and automatic suppression systems are important
components of high-rise building design.
- Tradeoffs involving the reduction or elimination of fire resistance
or other fire safety features should not be permitted. Redundancy
in protection is paramount if the fire safety of high-rise buildings
is to improve.
- Protection must be provided to prevent the vertical spread of
fire from floor to floor via the building’s exterior openings.
- Code officials must utilize the technological advances available
and incorporate changes into the codes based on scientific principles
THE
IMPACT OF POSITIVE FURNACE PRESSURE ON ASTM E119 TESTED ASSEMBLIES
FPPR January 1993, SR 321.01B
An explanation is provided as to why E119 fire tests should be
conducted under positive furnace pressure. Evidence is offered that
certain types of assemblies tested under negative furnace pressure
may not be able to withstand the E119 fire condition for the same
duration when tested under positive pressure. This can lead to unconservative
conclusions when E119 tests are used as a tool for assessing the
adequacy of some fire-rated assemblies in building construction.
|