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ECRA CCS Project - Report about Phase II
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Item Code: SN3022a
Date of Publication: 2009
Price: $0.00
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Climate protection seems to be one of the most important items on the worldwide agenda. All states are challenged to reduce their CO2 emissions dramatically, focussing on the major CO2 sources in their countries to contribute to ambitious reduction targets being worked out on a global level. It is unclear today, how these targets can be reached. In the long run, energy efficiency and the utilization of renewables seem to be the most sustainable way to tackle the global greenhouse gas emissions.
The European Community's objective is to limit the atmospheric temperature increase caused by climate change to 2 degrees C. This can only be achieved, when the global CO2 emissions could be reduced by 50% until 2050. However, it is obviously not possible to reduce the EU or world CO2 emissions by 50% in 2050 with energy efficiency and renewables alone. Therefore also carbon capture and storage of CO2 (CCS) is looked at as an option to contribute to the portfolio of reduction measures. CCS could provide 19% of the needed reduction in 2050. The European policy goal is to make CCS applicable by 2020. However, it is unclear if CCS implementation will be technically feasible and economically viable at that time.
Phase II of the CCS research project was started at the end of 2007 and was completed in summer 2009. The main objective in this phase was to perform a feasibility study of CO2 capture for the clinker burning process which focuses on oxyfuel and post-combustion measures. Apart from technical investigations and assessments, an economic analysis will also be included in the report.
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Summary of the Research on Behavior of Fully Grouted Reinforced Concrete and Clay Masonry Shear Walls
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Item Code: SN2902b
Date of Publication: 2009
Price: $0.00
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Research to establish the influence of mortar formulation on the behavior of fully grouted reinforced masonry shear walls is reported. Four full-scale masonry shear walls were tested with two types of units (clay and concrete) and two types of mortars (portland-cement-lime and masonry cement). Based on the experimental results the influence of mortar type on the seismic response of fully grouted, special reinforced masonry shear walls is negligible.
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Behavior of Inorganic Materials in Fire
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Item Code: RD067
Date of Publication: 1979
Price: $0.00
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Provides information on changes in strength, elastic, and thermal properties due to increasing temperatures for various concretes, steels, and concrete masonry. Also gives some thermal-property information for common brick, gypsum, ceiling tile, plasterboard, and asbestos board. This report is also found on DVD021.
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Clinker Microstructure and Grindability: Updated Literature Review
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Item Code: SN2967
Date of Publication: 2007
Price: $0.00
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Much of the available literature on the relationship between clinker microstructure and grindability agree that the primary influential factors are alite and belite crystal size and content. Specifically, smaller crystals and more alite (less belite) result in easier to grind clinker. Numerous equations are found in literature to predict clinker grindability based on its microstructure, and although the equations vary somewhat, the relationship to alite and belite content and size previously described are consistent.
On a related topic, some literature was found on clinker microstructure and grindability with the focus on the influence of trace elements, this topic arising likely due to the increased use of alternate raw materials and fuels.
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Development of Accelerated Test Methods for Measuring and Minimizing Efflorescence Potential
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Item Code: SN2515b
Date of Publication: 2007
Price: $0.00
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Efflorescence is an aesthetic nuisance in the masonry industry that comes in many forms and is due to numerous causes. This research was focused on the development of an accelerated test to assess efflorescence potential for the purpose of studying methods and/or materials to minimize its occurrence. An extensive literature search was conducted prior to the research to gather information on efflorescence mechanisms, reaction components, avoidance, and existing test methods in an effort to aid in the development of the accelerated test. The accelerated test was successfully developed along with a means of quantifying efflorescence potential. Workmanship, admixtures, and supplementary cementitious materials were evaluated according to this method in an effort to find ways of minimizing efflorescence. Workmanship was evaluated by studying the effects of tooling on masonry joints. Admixtures and supplementary materials showing promise in early trials were studied at varying dosage rates to analyze the most effective quantity for minimizing efflorescence. The occurrence of efflorescence could not be totally eliminated utilizing the selected variables, but efflorescence severity was notably decreased by certain variables. An addition of 7.5% cement kiln dust by weight of cement proved to be the most effective means of minimizing efflorescence.
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Efflorescence--A Synopsis of the Literature
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Item Code: SN2515a
Date of Publication: 2003
Price: $0.00
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Efflorescence, a deposit of water-soluble compounds on the surface of masonry, is a fairly common phenomenon that has been the topic of a significant body of published research and technical literature. The present literature review is designed to address a number of questions relative to the occurrence, mechanism, avoidance, testing, and removal of efflorescence in unit masonry construction. The review encompassed over 40 papers, of which many concentrated on the mechanism of formation of efflorescence, many discussed the sources of the components responsible for the efflorescence, a number dealt with the removal of existing efflorescence from the surface of masonry, and some proposed methods of test to evaluate potential for efflorescence. While components and mechanisms are fairly well established, the varieties of compounds and conditions that contribute to efflorescence have to date thwarted efforts to develop effective predictive test procedures for evaluating the potential for efflorescence in masonry. However, the literature and methods reviewed provide some direction for future work in that area. This report is also found on DVD021.
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Examination of ASTM C 265 Method of Measurement of CaSO4 in Portland Cement Mortar
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Item Code: SN2677
Date of Publication: 2004
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The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Test Method C 265 (“Method of Measurement of Calcium Sulfate in Portland Cement Mortar”) has been studied to determine the precision of the test method and search for means to improve it. In a first phase of the project, the particle size fraction for extraction, the method of crushing, and the time allowed for processing the sample were studied. A second phase studied extraction time, water/solid ratio for extraction, curing temperature, and cement sulfate content.
Findings show that none of the studied variables affected the precision of the test method result. Statistical analyses were conducted for the variables investigated in the second phase. Test of hypotheses for equal means (ANOVA) and equal variance (Levene and Bartlett) confirm that the variables tested and their combinations do not affect the standard deviation of test results. This report is also found on DVD021.
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Factors Affecting Bond Strength of Masonry
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Item Code: IS278
Date of Publication: 1994
Price: $0.00
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Learn how material properties, fabrication procedures, and curing conditions affect bond strength between mortar and units. Summarizes results of reported research spanning from the 1930's to the 1990's.
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Formation and Techniques for Control of Sulfur Dioxide and Other Sulfur Compounds in Portland Cement Kiln Systems
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Item Code: SN2460
Date of Publication: 2001
Price: $0.00
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This report presents the chemical and physical factors governing the generation of sulfur dioxide (SO2), its transformation into other sulfur compounds, and the removal of sulfur oxides within the cement kiln system. Sulfur in cement kilns is derived from both kiln feed and from the kiln fuel. The form of the sulfur dictates the location in the kiln where the SO2 generation takes place. Sulfur in the fuel is oxidized in the burning zone or calciner, and is easily removed by reactive lime present in the kiln. Kiln feed sulfur may be in the form of elemental sulfur, organic sulfur compounds, sulfides (either simple sulfides or polysulfides, such as pyrites), or sulfates. When present in the form of sulfate, it usually does not form SO2 but rather leaves the kiln system with the clinker. When present in any of the other forms, it may be oxidized to SO2 removal in rotary kilns, inherent SO2. Several control techniques were evaluated including: inherent SO2 removal in rotary kilns, inherent SO2 removal by in-line raw mills, process alterations, dry reagent injection, hot meal injection, spray dryer absorber, and wet SO2 scrubber.
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Hexavalent Chromium in Cement Manufacturing: Literature Review
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Item Code: SN2983
Date of Publication: 2007
Price: $0.00
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With regard to chromium and health and safety aspects, the water-soluble compounds of chromium in cement are most relevant, specifically compounds of the form Cr (VI). Chromium in the cement can originate from: 1) raw materials or fuel, 2) magnesia-chrome kiln refractory brick, if used, 3) wear metal from raw mill grinding process, if chromium alloys are used, and 4) additions such as gypsum, pozzolans, ground granulated blast furnace slag, mineral components, and cement kiln dust.
The cement process, specifically kiln conditions, can influence how much Cr (VI) will form. In the kiln, oxidizing atmosphere will play the largest role, with more oxygen in the burning zone leading to increased Cr (VI) formation. Alkali concentration is also of importance, since Cr (VI) in clinker is primarily in the form of chromates. In the finish mill, thermodynamically favorable conditions for oxidation to Cr (VI) exists, including high air sweep, moisture from gypsum dehydration, cooling water injection, and grinding aids, along with the high pH of the cement.
Several materials have been used to reduce the level of soluble Cr (VI) formation. The most widely used material is ferrous sulfate; other materials include stannous sulfate, manganese sulfate, and stannous chloride. Some of these materials have limitations such as limited stability, limited supply, and possible influence on cement performance. In all cases, some form of dosing and mixing equipment is required.
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Index of Research and Development Bulletins 1939-1989
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Item Code: RD100
Date of Publication: 1990
Price: $0.00
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This comprehensive publication contains an annotated list of Development Bulletins (DX series), Research Bulletins (RX series), and Research and Development Bulletins (RD series), a subject index of the bulletins, and detailed abstracts. Lists reports on PCA-sponsored research in the field of cement and concrete materials technology from 1939 to the present. The index also references Lewis Institute Bulletins from 1918 to 1926. Presents over 1,000 topics, including concrete properties, concrete structures, masonry, pavements, prestressed concrete, soil-cement, structural design, and many more. More than 492 bulletins are indexed by subject and author. For specific information on cement and concrete topics, investigation or research, this index is an essential publication. The index is basically a detailed catalog of research and development bulletins, all of which are available through PCA’s Order Processing department. This report is also found on DVD021.
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